Opportunities and challenges of entomopathogenic nematodes as biocontrol agents in their tripartite interactions

Abstract Background The complex including entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) of the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis their mutualistic partner, i.e., Xenorhabdus Photorhabdus bacteria, respectively possesses many attributes ideal biological control agents against numerous insect pests as a third partner. Despite authenic opportunities for practical use biocontrol globally, they are challenged by major impediments especially cost reliability. Main body This review article presents EPNs to familiarize growers stakeholders with careful application. As relatively high EPN costs frequently low efficacy still hindering them from reaching broader biopesticide markets, this is latest findings on strain/species enhancement, improvement production, formulation application technology, achieving insects standpoint facing these challenges. conditions practices that affected integrated pest management (IPM) identified. Besides, efforts have been made address such in various ways grasp effective approaches, identify research priority areas, allow refined techniques. Additionally, sampling factors responsible obtaining more isolates differential pathogenicity better adaptation specific pest(s) discussed. Conclusion Specific improvements formulation, technology reviewed which may help use. Other diverse optimize constitute cost-effective, value-added approach IPM also demonstrated.